Session 1: Lithium-Ion Cell Materials

1. Advances in Olivine Cathode Materials for Large Lithium-Ion Batteries
   Guoxian Liang, R&D Director, Phostech Lithium, Inc.
   Abstract 

   

   Since the introduction of olivine type lithium metal phosphate cathode materials in 1997 for lithium ion batteries, significant progresses have been made in understanding this chemistry system and in manufacturing lithium metal phosphate materials and batteries. Interest is growing rapidly in using lithium metal phosphate for batteries in energy storage batteries and electric mobility applications.

   Lithium metal phosphate has very low intrinsic electronic and ionic conductivities, carbon coating on nanao sized particles has been a successful strategy in commercial manufacturing of high performance product to mitigate the low intrinsic conductivity. Therefore, carbon coating, particles size and morphology of primary and secondary particles have great impact on product performance and process-ability. Many different manufacturing processes such as solid state reaction, hydrothermal and sol-gel process have been explored for producing lithium iron phosphate. Each process has its advantages and disadvantages in controlling the material purity, crystal structure, particle size/agglomerate and carbon coating. Sud-Chemie and its subsidiary, Phostech Lithium, continue to develop several synthesis processes to fulfill needs of present & future customers and markets. In this paper, Phostech/Sud-Chemie will present recent development on various products and their applications:

   • PA30, a new advanced Life Power® grade, produced by a solid state reaction,
   • P2 grade, production in Candiac plant, Canada
   • LiMnxFe1-xPO4 high voltage materials

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2. Advances in Materials towards the Realization of Lithium-Ion Cells with Higher Energy Density
   Sujeet Kumar, President & CTO, Envia Systems
   Abstract 

   

   The overwhelming need for low cost and light weight energy storage systems for transportation requires the development of radically new active materials for lithium ion batteries.  Envia has developed High Capacity Manganese Rich (HCMR™) cathode with discharge capacity as high as 300 mAh/gm.  Envia has manufactured large format cells with specific energy of 240 Wh/kg using this proprietary HCMR™ cathode paired with a graphite anode.  Envia has developed a nano-structured silicon-carbon composite anode that exhibits capacity of 1600 mAh/gm. When this anode is paired with HCMR™ cathode, the energy density of the cell improves considerably. By packaging more energy in each cell, amount of active material and the number of cells required for electric drive vehicle applications decreases substantially making widespread adoption of EDVs possible.  In this presentation, performance of Envia's high capacity cathode and anode will be examined in large format cells. 
   

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3. High Performance Overlithiated Layer Oxide (OLO) Cathode Battery
   Hironari Takase, Senior Researcher, Samsung Yokohama Research Institute
   Abstract 

   

   High-voltage cycling performance at elevated temperature of Li-ion battery based on Li-rich layered oxide cathode material, i.e., Li₂MnO₃-LiMO₂ (M=Co, Ni, and Mn. >250mAh/g), was dramatically improved by applying newly-developed electrolyte system with fluorinated ether and fluorinated carbonate solvent. The Li₂MnO₃-LiMO₂ / Graphite cell using the modified electrolyte exhibits over 200mAh/g-cathode even after 200 cycles at 45 °C, under operation voltage range of 4.65 - 2.0V at 1C-charge / 1C-discharge rate (Capacity retention; 87%@200cycle).
   Additionally, less swelling property and its mechanism of the OLO-cathode/Graphite cell will be also discussed at this presentation.

   Fig.1 Comparative cathode energy density at each charging voltage		Fig.2 Cell swelling reduction at 1st charging (4.6V) by new cathode synthetic method-2
   Fig.3 1C/1C cycle performance at 45 °C of OLO/graphite cell

   
   

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4. Advances in Electrolytes for Lithium Ion Batteries: A Mechanistic Understanding
   Brett Lucht, Associate Professor, University of Rhode Island
   Abstract 

   

   There is significant interest in the development of higher energy lithium ion batteries (LIB) for electric vehicles. One method of improving the energy density of lithium ion batteries is to increase the operating voltage of the cells by increasing the working potentials of positive electrode employing for example lithium nickel manganese spinel LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ or layered mixed metal oxide Li₂MnO₃-LiMO₂ as the active material. However, cycling of lithium-ion cells to high voltages (~5.0 V vs lithium reference electrode, LRE) proceeds with relatively low (99% and less) coulombic efficiency. Among the primary contributors to the poor cycling efficiency are the electrochemical oxidation reactions of the electrolytes at the high positive potentials of positive electrode.

   We have been conducting a two part investigation of electrolytes for high voltage LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ and Li₂MnO₃-LiMO₂ cathodes. First, we have been studying the reaction of standard electrolyte (LiPF₆ in EC/EMC) with the surface of the LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ and Li₂MnO₃-LiMO₂ particles. Second, we have been developing novel additives designed to sacrificially react on the surface of LNMS cathode materials to generate a passivation layer which inhibits further electrolyte oxidation.

   Our investigation of the reactions of electrolyte with the surface of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ cathode materials include electrodes cycled to 4.9 V vs Li, cycled under accelerated aging conditions, and cathode particles stored at elevated temperature (85 °C) in the presence of electrolytes. This will allow us to develop a better understanding of the detrimental electrochemical and thermal reactions of the electrolyte with the cathode surface.

   Two classes of additives, inorganic and organic, have been investigated which are preferentially oxidized to form a cathode SEI which inhibits the oxidative reactions of the cathode with the electrolyte the cathode particles. Incorporation of the additives has an effect on the capacity retention of the cells when cycled to 4.9 V especially under accelerated aging and improves the cycling efficiency.

   After cycling and storage experiments an ex-situ analysis of the electrodes or cathode particles was conducted via a combination of SEM, XPS, and FT-IR spectroscopy to determine the relationship between the cathode surface films and of performance differences for different electrolytes.

   Acknowledgements
   We thank the Batteries for Advanced Transportation Technologies (BATT) Program supported by the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Vehicles Technologies, DOE EPSCoR, and BASF for funding.
   

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5. Lithium/Air Battery Project
   Winfried Wilcke, Senior Manager Nanoscale Science and Technology, Almaden, IBM Research Division
   Abstract 

   

   The talk will give a summary of the current status and scientific results of the IBM /Battery 500 Lithium/Air battery project.

   Lithium/Air is a chemistry with the potential for very high specific energy density (Wh/kg). It relies on the use of oxygen (or ideally ambient air) to form a Lithium compound during discharge and the reduction of this compound to lithium metal and gaseous oxygen during recharge. The lithium compound is lithium peroxide for aprotic (non-aqueous)electrolytes and lithium hydroxide for aqueous lithium air batteries, respectively. The IBM results clearly established through laboratory experiments, electrochemical mass spectrometry and supercomputer modeling that commonly used electrolytes for a conventional lithium ion batteries are being destroyed in a lithium air battery and do not work. But several other electrolytes do show clear evidence of supporting charging and recharging, indicating that the choice of electrolytes for these batteries is very critical. The measured charge densities are very high, but the number of charge/discharge cycles is still low and a strong function of the cathode materials used. The effect of common catalysts has been studied and found to be either insubstantial or destructive - catalysts may not play a significant role in Lithium/Air technology. The conductivity properties of lithium peroxide, both in bulk and on the surface, has emerged as a key material property critical for understanding this chemistry.

   The talk will conclude with an enumeration of the outstanding scientific problems and give an outlook onto the next phase of the project, which will begin to add engineering aspects to the current science. The goal is the construction of a rather large Lithium/air battery in a couple of years.
   

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Keynote Address: Extending the Lifetime of Li-Ion Batteries for Automotive and Grid Energy Applications

• Abstract 

  

  Lithium-ion batteries are now being used in electric vehicles. There are four main factors which will determine the success of Li-ion batteries in this application: a) safety; b) cost; c) performance and d) lifetime. Each of the factors is presently the subject of much debate and much R+D. I will only speak about lifetime here.

  Testing the lifetime of Li-ion batteries for automotive applications under realistic conditions of temperature and number of cycles per day is very time consuming. In fact, such a test should take a decade or more, if the batteries are expected to last a decade in the field. Tests of such duration slow the product improvement cycle immensely.

  In this lecture, I will discuss how high precision measurements of the coulombic efficiency of Li-ion cells and batteries can be used to predict the relative lifetimes, on the decade-long scale, of these devices in measurements that only take a few weeks. The measurements enable the rapid comparison of technologies using new electrode materials, electrolyte additives and cell designs so that the product improvement cycle can be significantly shortened. I will describe the requirements of the instruments needed to make these measurements and point out that nothing suitable is, as yet, commercially available. There is a major need for such equipment and an associated business opportunity.

  How can an OEM tell that incoming cells for assembly into Li-ion battery packs for an EV application will, in fact, last for a decade or longer? What non-destructive measurements can be made in a few days or weeks to assure the quality of the cells? I will explain one way this can be done and point out, again, that the required equipment is, as yet, not commercially available.
  

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Session 2: Battery Safety and Durability Validation in Long-Life Applications

1. Battery Life Verification for the GM eAssist Hybrid System
   JT Guerin, Engineering Specialist - BFO Hybrid Energy Storage Systems, General Motors
   Abstract 

   

   General Motors' eAssist is a light electrification powertrain system that was introduced in the 2012 Buick LaCrosse and 2012 Buick Regal, which delivers over a 20% improvement in highway and city mileage compared to previous models. The powertrain includes of a 15 kW motor/generator and a 15 kW, 32 cell lithium ion battery system. The presentation will cover the modeling approach used to verify the battery system will meet the 10 year/150,000 mile customer life expectations, including the test and life estimation process. The battery model includes key battery life parameters including temperature and throughput. These critical parameters are influenced by the array of operating behaviors and conditions and their variation will be examined through data from test fleet vehicles and actual customers. Additionally, how those behaviors and conditions are expected to influence the life predictions of the battery system are examined. The presentation will conclude with a discussion on the improvement and optimization of the battery life verification process including the integration of CAE methods and knowledge developed during the eAssist development.
   

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2. Li-Ion Pouch Cell Designs; Are They Ready for Space Applications?
   Eric Darcy, Battery Group Leader, NASA
   
   Abstract 

   

   • Today, numerous larger format Li-ion pouch cell designs offer an excellent combination of high power and energy density (W/kg, ~150 Wh/kg) at beginning of life conditions.
   • Long life service in manned space applications requires thoughtful design features, maintaining high quality manufacturing practices, rigorous and thorough tests under extreme vacuum and thermal conditions, and strictly adhering to operational limits.
   • Comparison of the electrochemical performance several leading pouch cell designs targeting the electric vehicle market will be presented.
   • Comparison of the seal performance of these pouch cell designs will also be presented along with an investigation into its corrolation to a cell design's susceptibility to internal corrosion.
   • To date, the longest serving space Li-ion batteries have been performing in Low Earth Orbit for over 10 years with the Sony HC 18650 cell design with a crimped soft good seal. How do the seals of our pouch cell designs compare to this standard?

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3. Determination of Battery Charging Limits and Thermal Runaway Risk
   Jasbir Singh, Managing Director, Hazard Evaluation Labs, Ltd.
   Abstract 

   

   The objective of this presentation is to demonstrate how this risk of thermal runway leading fire and explosion can be quantified safely in the laboratory so that the the conditions of temperature and charging/discharging rate which can trigger the runaway, are measured including video evidence. This will involve both the use of a modified "ARC-type" adiabatic calorimeter, the Battery Testing Calorimeter (BTC) and a new form of calorimeter which directly measures heat generation while the battery temperature is constant. Specifically, the presentation will focus on:

   • Temperature limits for batteries that can trigger a violent chemical reaction and the consequences of the incident in terms of fire, explosion and toxic gas generation.
   • Limits on charging/discharging rate and on overcharging, as well as the consequences of exceeding these limits.
   • The amount of heat generated when a battery is charged/discharged, so that the thermal management systems can be properly designed to cope – and hence avoid the thermal runaway fires/explosions.

   The talk will also explain data generated without the use of calorimeters is unsuitable and how it can indeed also pose a risk to operators. The talk will include data from important commercial battery trials on Li-ion and Li-ion polymer batteries to show the value of this technology to battery development and safety. Live videos of prototype batteries undergoing explosion for example with prototype pouch batteries, while being charged/discharged will also be presented.
   

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4. Validation of Battery Safety for Space Missions
   Judith Jeevarajan, Battery Group Lead for Safety and Advanced Technology, NASA-JSC
   Abstract 

   

   Batteries are commonly used as primary power supplies for space vehicles and launch systems. Batteries for space vehicles have been of different chemistries and configurations and the important factor is to achieve safety especially for those used in a human-rated environment. Battery certifications and validations for safety for space missions is based on the toxicity and energy content of the batteries and the environment as well as application. The following are the steps used in certifying batteries for safety.

   • Cell selection based on trade studies or cell test data from different cell manufacturers.
   • After choice of cell, engineering battery units are built and tests are carried out for mission performance as well as safety characterization in the relevant environment. This is a reiterative process where both performance and safety are optimized by design and testing.
   • After design has been confirmed, qualification units are built and tested to environments that have a margin over the flight environments.
   • After qualification tests have been successfully completed, flight acceptance testing is carried out.
   • Flight battery units are built with cells that are screened stringently. Cell level screening is dependent on battery chemistry. For more hazardous chemistries such as lithium primary and li-ion rechargeable batteries, the screening process is extensive. Batteries are subjected to flight acceptance testing that include performance testing as well as vibration and vacuum/thermal vacuum exposure at a minimum.
   • In parallel, failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and hazard identification and controls for the hazards are mapped out clearly. The hazards and controls and their verifications are documented in a Hazard Report and all verifications of controls using test methods or analysis should be closed out before launch and flight.
   • A safety panel works with the project team from inception to completion to confirm that a safe product is being flown.

   The paper will be presented with special emphasis on lithium-ion battery safety for space missions.
   

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5. Japanese Activities in Support of Electrified Vehicle Proliferation
   Terunao Kawai, Chief Researcher Environment Research Dept., National Traffic Safety and Environment Lab.
   Abstract 

   

   In order to reduce GHG, it is essential for transportation to leverage much further electric power. Electric-drive vehicles are becoming more realistic for the practical use, because of the recent improvement of battery performance. However, there is a negative side that battery performance restrictions prevent eclectic-drive vehicles from being used the same as internal-combustion engine vehicles. In these circumstances, so as to leverage electric-drive vehicles effectively, NTSEL administered by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) has considered the followings; future scenario, required safety, necessary for development of testing methodology for environmental performance and technical issues, and they are described in this study. The suggestion of the future transport infrastructure system which can utilize eclectic power is also provided. Agendas of my presentation are below;

   • Challenges of electrified vehicle proliferation
   • Concept for Li-ion Battery testing method for vehicle

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6. Regulations for Safe Shipping of Large Li Ion Batteries
   Tom Ferguson, Technical Consultant, Council on the Safe Transportation of Hazardous Articles, Inc. (COSTHA)
   Abstract 

   

   Lithium battery transport regulations have lagged behind lithium battery technologies. Transport regulations were based on hand-held or portable battery sizes and did not account for large format designs currently in use in hybrid and full-electric vehicle applications. Although changes to these regulations are in progress, it is important to understand these changes are not End-of-Project packaging requirements, but instead may require battery configuration and case design considerations.

   • Transportation regulations are based on the fundamental concept of hazard classification. Lithium batteries are also subject to classification and mandated tests to permit classification. A cell or battery which cannot pass these tests is forbidden for transport unless specific approvals are given by competent authorities. These tests are contained within the United Nations Manual of Tests and Criteria. Currently this Manual is in its 5th Revised Edition, however additional changes have already been approved.
   • Once a battery has been tested, it still must be packaged for transport. Depending on the size of the battery, packaging certified to meet certain testing criteria may be required. Battery assemblies with a mass greater than 12 kilograms do not typically require packaging meeting United Nations specifications.
   • Batteries installed in vehicles are not excepted from the regulations in most cases. If shipped by air, vessel, or ground within the United States, lithium ion batteries must still pass the classification tests. Additional requirements or limitations apply for various modes of transportation.
   • If a battery cannot pass the required tests, specific approval from multiple governments are required for international transport. Such approvals typically require high performance-standard packaging.
   • Ongoing dialogue with US and international governments indicate a potential for additional changes the transport requirements of automotive-application lithium ion batteries.

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Session 3: Advanced Batteries for Stationary Applications

1. Pilot Programs Utilizing Advanced Batteries and Utility Energy Storage
   Haresh Kamath, Senior Project Manager, Power Delivery and Utilization, EPRI
   Abstract 

   

   Increased public and private investments as well as policy initiatives are spurring electrical energy storage project activities worldwide and, in turn, speeding the rate of change in grid-scale storage technologies. Over 200 utility-scale stationary energy storage projects are currently operating, under development, or have been discontinued in the United States and abroad. In the U.S., the vast majority (90+) of cataloged projects is either under development or proposed. Many of these planned installations are receiving grant funding authorized by the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) of 2009; others are being enabled through financial support from the Department of Energy (DOE) and private-public partnerships. This paper describes several major battery projects currently underway in the U.S., based on three different battery storage chemistries (advanced lead-acid, lithium ion, and sodium-sulfur) and how these projects compare in field operation.
   

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2. Southern California Edison Energy Storage Efforts
   Loic Gaillac, 2. Energy Storage Group Leader, Advanced Technology Division, Southern California Edison
   Abstract 

   

   This presentation describes the various on-going energy storage activities within the Advanced Technology Organization of Southern California Edison. In the early 1990s, SCE's Electric Vehicle Test Center (EVTC) began validating battery technologies for both automobile and stationary uses. To date, the EVTC which is now part of the SCE Advanced Technology Organization, has shepherded an all-electric fleet of nickel metal hydride battery-powered vehicles over 20-million miles, while also testing diverse advanced battery systems in the EVTC laboratory. In March 2009, President Barack Obama recognized the EVTC with a presidential visit and used the venue for a major energy policy speech.

   SCE's advanced energy storage program includes partnering with major battery manufacturers, government agencies and other organizations to evaluate and pilot advanced batteries in stationary uses ranging from residential to distribution level applications, up to a multi-megawatts battery plan. From these and other study platforms, SCE gains valuable insight into how to develop integrated energy systems of the future that enhance the electric grid reliability, safety and cost-effectiveness, while potentially lowering costs for customers.

   The presentation outline is:

   • Company Overview
   • CA Energy Storage Drivers
   • SCE Leadership
   • SCE Energy Storage Test Facilities
   • Energy Storage Approach and Methodologies
   • Utility Energy Storage Applications
   • SCE R&D Pilot Projects
   • SCE Laboratory Activities
   • Final Observation

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3. Battery System Development for the Electric Grid – A Photovoltaic Perspective
   Matthias Vetter, Head of Department, PV Off-Grid Solutions and Battery System Technology Division, Electrical Energy Systems EES, Fraunhofer Institut fur Solare Energiesysteme
   Abstract 

   

   Motivation
   The accumulated installed PV power in Germany reached end of 2011 a level of 21 GWp. This is already a significant number as the load curve in Germany varies between approximately 40 GWp and 80 GWp. By 2020 targets of a PV fraction of 10 % in terms of electrical energy production are discussed at the moment, which leads to an installed PV power of 50 GWp to 60 GWp. Taking into account the German load curve again, these values show the demand for electrical storages, besides demand-side measures and grid expansion. Most of these PV systems are in the small and medium power range, are installed on buildings and are feeding into the low voltage grid, which is operated in certain regions already today at its limits.
   Integration of decentralized battery storages, e.g. lithium-ion batteries, in combination with an intelligent energy management can reduce these problems and enable a maximization of decentralized PV production in the low voltage grid.
   Considering future German markets but especially international markets, big PV parks offer a huge potential e.g. for direct marketing models, as systems prices droop quite fast and these systems become reasonable in the near future. In this application short term battery systems in the MW range support a feeding-in of scheduled PV power independently from short term weather disturbances, e.g. caused by passing clouds, which are hard to predict accurately by prognosis tools. For this application lithium-ion batteries are also a very interesting opportunity to smooth these fluctuations.

   Approach
   Within this presentation, concepts for decentralized grid connected PV battery systems using lithium-ion technology are introduced, which are based on a modular system design. Requirements and approaches for the battery system itself as well as the peripheral components and system integration issues, like standardized field bus communication, are discussed.
   The introduced modular approach for lithium-ion batteries includes module and system design, conducting technologies, cooling and the development of model based battery management systems with advanced algorithms for state of charge and state of health determination as well as optimized operating control strategies of the storage system.

   Presented results
   Calculations show remarkable fractions of possible self consumption of decentralized grid connected photovoltaics by integrating lithium-ion battery systems. Furthermore it can be shown, that with an appropriate design of decentralized grid connected PV battery systems the fraction of purchased electrical energy from the grid can be reduced to levels below one-fifth even for German weather conditions.
   Exemplary for the MW class of lithium-ion battery systems, simulation results of an economic analysis for a PV park is introduced for the site Aswan in Egypt.
   Modular concepts for stationary lithium-ion battery systems and the introduced standard CiA 454 for field bus communication in PV applications enable an easy combination of battery systems with different power electronic products (charge controllers and battery inverters) as well as energy management systems. State of charge and state of health determination based on so called particle filters offer precise information on the single battery cells, which allow optimized operating control strategies, e.g. for cell balancing. Furthermore on this basis the battery management supports an optimized integration and operation of the storage system in grid connected PV applications.
   

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4. Large-Format Lithium-Ion Battery Systems for Mobility and Stationary Applications
   Masahide Yamaguchi, General Manager, Renewable Energy Division, GS Yuasa International;
   Edward Murphy, Industrial Sales Manager, GS Yuasa Lithium Power
   Abstract 

   

   GS Yuasa is a leading global company with 37 affiliates and offices in 19 countries. GS Yuasa's businesses include the manufacture and supply of Li-Ion, Ni-Mh, lead-acid and silver zinc batteries; and power supply systems, lighting equipment, specialty and other electrical equipment.

   The GS Yuasa Group was a pioneer in the creation of practical lithium ion batteries, including the development of the prismatic lithium-ion battery in 1993. Utilizing multiple lithium ion chemistries in batteries designed for the specific application, GS Yuasa has demonstrated substantial success in a variety of industrial markets including; aerospace and aviation, EV/HEV, hybrid cranes and AGV, grid support, marine, and railway systems. This presentation highlights a few of GS Yuasa's current projects in stationary and mobility applications.

   Stationary applications include:

   • Grid scale energy storage
   • EV charge station with PV
   • Railway support systems
   • UPS

   
   Mobility applications include:

   • Electric buses
   • Hybrid cranes
   • Light and heavy rail car systems

   
   The on-going commercialization of lithium ion systems requires significant investments in the research and development of new materials; cell and battery designs along with cost reduction initiatives to ensure they meet the technical and commercial requirements of the different markets. With 2010 revenues of $3.4B USD and 23,000 employees in 28 factories across 14 countries GS Yuasa is committed to maintaining their leadership position and driving the commercialization of industrial lithium ion batteries.
   

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5. Smart Energy System for Stationary Applications
   Hiroshi Edward Hanafusa, Energy Solutions Development Center, Panasonic Corporation, IBM Group
   Abstract 

   

   Smart Energy System has been developed, which generates, stores, and consumes green energies effectively and efficiently. Smart Energy System is an essential component of a Smart-grid and should be scalable, autonomous and ready to coordinate with other grids. The architecture for the Smart-grid should have a single controller and should be scalable according to applications, such as factories, office buildings, hospitals and commercial stores.

   Panasonic Group had installed a Smart Energy System for factory use with a large-scale storage battery system using Lithium-Ion batteries at their Kasai factory in Japan. The system has been operated from October 2010 successfully. The Smart Energy System charges the batteries both with low cost late-night grid electricity and surplus solar electricity after the use at the factory. The stored electricity is used during the daytime. The battery system has more than 1000 battery boxes and each box consists of 312 18650cells typically found in laptop computers. Therefore, the system consists of more than 300,000 pieces of 18650cells. With the newly developed battery management system, the whole battery system can be used as if it were just one single battery. The capacity of the battery system is approximately 1500 kWh; the PV system can distribute 1,060 kW DC power. The Smart Energy System can shave the power over 15 % at the daily peak time, through total energy management.

   Another example is Smart Energy system for a next-generation convenience store in Japan. Even at a time of electrical outage caused by a disaster, such as hurricanes and earthquakes, the system can support the POS system, LED lighting and other functions which are critical for the business, utilizing the renewable energy 24 hours a day, every day. The demo system is located in Kyoto, and started operation in December 2010. It uses 10kWh lithium-ion batteries and 10 kW PV.

   Smart Energy Systems for residential houses have been also demonstrated from February 2011 and some of them are in Tokyo metropolitan area. The energy stored in Lithium-ion batteries could be used during blackouts after disasters.
   

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